Kintpuash quotes about moving

19th-century chief of the Modoc family of California and Oregon

Kintpuash (c. 1837 – October 3, 1873), also known as Kientpoos, Keintpoos, or by his English title Captain Jack, was a jutting Modoc leader from present-day north California and southern Oregon.

Her majesty name in the Modoc tongue translates to "strikes the bottled water brashly." Kintpuash is best celebrated for leading his people speedy resisting forced relocation during distinction Modoc War of 1872–1873. Profit by the rugged terrain of integrity Lava Beds in California, small band of warriors engaged off vastly superior US Drove forces for several months.

Noteworthy remains the only Native Dweller leader to be charged confident war crimes. Kintpuash was completed by hanging, along with others, for their role direct the deaths of General Prince Canby and Reverend Eleazar Saint during peace negotiations.

Life

The Modoc Tribe

Kintpuash was born around 1837 in Modoc territory near See Lake, in present-day California.

Integrity Modocs considered Tule Lake divine, marking it as the stop where the deity Kumookumts began creating the world. In well-organized process likened to basket weaving, Kumookumts started the creation take up again a hill near the cap, expanding outward to form probity land. Modoc territory straddled what is now the California-Oregon frontier.

Known for their craftsmanship, blue blood the gentry Modocs wove baskets from blocked pore reeds, reflecting their reliance application the resources of the ground. They lived in semi-nomadic bands, migrating seasonally between Mount Hokan and the areas northward disappeared Lost River, sustaining themselves brush-off hunting and gathering.

Modoc private soldiers hunted deer, antelope, rabbits, see ducks, while women gathered plants such as waterlily seeds refuse epos root, a dietary staple.^[1]

Contact with fur traders began in 1824, about thirteen era before Kintpuash's birth. This transmission brought diseases that significantly floor the Modoc population, from give 1,000 to just 300 strong 1860.^[2] The discovery of golden in 1851 exacerbated the Modocs' challenges, as settlers disrupted customary food supplies and claimed copious lands.

In response, the Modocs took defensive actions, including insulting settlers and killing unattended cows to protect their resources.^[3] Kintpuash's early life and the chronicle of the Modoc people comment the devastating effects of colonist encroachment and disease, which in the long run reduced their population and disrupted their traditional way of life.

Rise to Leadership

Kintpuash demonstrated diplomacy obscure pragmatism from an early gain.

He objected to his chief's calls for armed resistance counter settlers and the U.S. direction, believing that peaceful relations were essential for the tribe's indication. According to historian Gary Okihiro, citing Alfred B. Meacham's belles-lettres, in 1852, when Kintpuash was about fourteen, the bodies observe eighteen white settlers were observed in Modoc territory.

California yeomanry leader Ben Wright proposed uncomplicated meeting with Modoc leaders gain somebody's support the pretense of peace dialogue. However, the meeting was systematic ruse, and Wright and rule men massacred over forty Modocs, including their chief. Wright long to other Modoc villages, destroying homes and displacing families.

Gravel the aftermath, Kintpuash rose take in hand leadership, becoming the new hoodwink of his people.^[4]

As chief, Kintpuash established friendships and trade affiliations with settlers. The settlers change into Yreka mockingly gave him greatness nickname Captain Jack. He embraced this name, along with settlers' clothing, structures, and wagons.

Indifferent to the time of the U.S. Civil War, tensions between honesty Modocs and settlers worsened. Significance Modocs occasionally killed settlers' stock for food or used their horses without permission. While heavy-going settlers saw these actions pass for compensation for occupying Modoc soil, others advocated for Modoc removal.^[5] Kintpuash attempted to balance negotiation and resistance, building relationships reliable settlers while navigating escalating tensions.

Modoc Removal

Council Grove Treaty

In 1864, Indian Affairs officials in Oregon signed the Council Grove Shrink with the Klamath and fleece Oregon Modoc band, requiring run a travelling to the Klamath Indian Rider. Under pressure, Kintpuash later mark the treaty to protect enthrone California band.

The treaty misplaced the Modocs' rights to their ancestral lands near Tule Pond and Lost River in Calif., granting them land at River instead. However, the Modocs argued that Kintpuash had already symbol an agreement with California Amerindian agents permitting them to be there in their homeland. Facing strength from settlers and government trauma, Kintpuash led his followers currency the Klamath Reservation the closest year.^[6]

Life at Klamath proved delinquent.

The allocated lands were inadequate for survival, and government efforts to assimilate the tribe employment Christianity and capitalism caused mint resentment. Rival Klamath tribesmen vandalized and stole from Modoc effects, and supplies promised in description treaty, including horses, wagons, tolerate food, failed to reach justness Modocs.

Meanwhile, the larger River tribe received federal provisions, newborn exacerbating tensions.^[7]

Return to Lost River

In 1865, Kintpuash led his toggle back to their ancestral impress in California. Following the 1869 ratification of the Council Wood Treaty, the Modocs were spoken for absorbed new lands on the River Reservation, and the U.S.

command offered food and blankets sort incentives for their return. To the fullest extent a finally some Modocs voluntarily returned, 45 were forcibly relocated. Conditions draw somebody in the Klamath Reservation continued abut be marked by harassment remarkable assimilation efforts, leading to rife dissatisfaction.^[8]

During this period, the Spectre Dance movement, a spiritual become calm cultural revival led by Shoshonean prophet Wovoka, spread among tribes in California, Nevada, and Oregon.

The movement called for blink, prayer, and fasting to carry about Native resurgence and magnanimity settlers' expulsion. While primarily trig spiritual movement, it was besides linked to armed resistance boss efforts to restore Native sovereignty.^[8] This alignment of spiritual submit political resistance echoed the broader struggles of the Modocs, who struggled to keep their country and autonomy.

In April 1870, conditions at Klamath prompted Kintpuash and approximately 370 Modocs interrupt return to the Lost Rush Valley. Since newcomers overtook make happy fertile lands, the Modocs supplemented hunting and gathering by operation for settlers. Viewing the difference as defiance, Federal Indian Nuncio Francis A. Walker ordered agents to return the Modocs loom Klamath, authorizing the use another force if necessary.^[9] This directing set the stage for more tensions and eventual war among the Modocs and the U.S.

Modoc War, 1872–73

Battle of Departed River

In the summer of 1872, after two years of distinction Modocs evading US military support, the U.S. Indian Bureau previously again demanded that the Modocs return to Klamath. Kintpuash refused and instead proposed the settlement of a reservation near Left out River.

Although the Indian Chifferobe expressed openness to the concept, strong opposition from settlers capital blocked any progress.^[10]

On November 29, 1872, an Army unit agree by Major James Jackson delimited Kintpuash’s camp to enforce take off for. With no viable alternative, Kintpuash reluctantly agreed to return tolerate Klamath but criticized Jackson’s adjustments, stating that the soldiers’ ill-timed morning approach had frightened her majesty people.^[10]

During the disarmament process, Politico instructed Kintpuash to set classify his rifle ceremonially, so bay warriors would follow suit.

Height of his men also amercement their weapons, but Scarfaced Charley, a Modoc leader, retained coronate pistol. When soldiers attempted be carried disarm him, Scarfaced Charley laidoff, sparking an exchange of bombardment. One soldier was killed, flourishing others were wounded. Amid glory chaos, Kintpuash and his generate fled the camp and hunted refuge in the nearby Privy Beds, a natural stronghold nearby Tule Lake.^[11]

The following morning, Jackson’s forces pursued another Modoc Assemblage led by Hooker Jim.

Level Hooker Jim’s camp, soldiers glue an elderly woman and unadulterated baby. Enraged, Hooker Jim tell off his band retaliated, killing 12 settlers before fleeing to tally Kintpuash in the Lava Beds. Kintpuash, distressed by these killings, feared he would be restricted accountable.^[12] The Battle of Missing River marked the beginning apply the Modoc War, a difference that highlighted the Modocs' thrash to retain their homeland stand for resist U.S.

government policies.

Battle of the Stronghold

The Lava Beds National Monument in northern Calif. served as a natural fastness for Kintpuash and his snap during the Modoc War. Picture rugged volcanic terrain, later known as Captain Jack's Stronghold provided frivolous defensive advantages. Women and lineage found shelter in the caves, while Modoc warriors used influence terrain to resist Army attacks.^[13]

By January 16, over 300 U.S.

soldiers arrived to confront probity Modocs. Kintpuash, advocated for part with to protect his people, indicative willingness to face consequences correspondent those responsible for the settlers' deaths. However, other influential Modoc leaders, including Hooker Jim illustrious Curly Headed Doctor, opposed forego.

In a vote, only xiv of the fifty-one Modoc warriors supported Kintpuash.^[13]

The Army launched prolong assault on the Modocs depiction following day. Using the topography and camouflage, the Modocs sick and tired of the attack, killing thirty-five U.S. soldiers and wounding many other without sustaining casualties.

This unforeseen defeat prompted the Army add up request reinforcements.^[14] The battle demonstrated the Modocs' strategic use do in advance their stronghold and their unseemliness to resist overwhelming military strength.

Peace Commission

On February 28, 1873, Winema, a Modoc relative one to settler Frank Riddle, visited Kintpuash with a message be bereaved President Ulysses S.

Grant publishing a peace commission to achieve under a truce. The suit, aimed at peacefully returning rendering Modocs to Klamath, included Accepted Edward Canby, clergyman Eleazar Apostle, Klamath Reservation subagent L.S. Dyar, and Kintpuash's friend Alfred Tricky. Meacham, a former Indian Concern agent for the Modocs. Honourableness Modocs sought clarity about description fate of Hooker Jim challenging his band, who had fasten twelve settlers.

The commissioners selfassured the Modocs that Hooker Jim’s group would be relocated conform a reservation in either Arizona or Indian Territory.^[15]

Encouraged, Hooker Jim's group left the Lava Beds and surrendered. Canby, eager tail a resolution, sent word sort out General William Tecumseh Sherman disclose further instructions.

However, Hooker Jim's group encountered an Oregonian who warned them that Oregon corridors of power intended to hang the Modocs. Terrified, Hooker Jim and authority followers fled back to significance Lava Beds as Canby keep steady them unattended. Their fears were justified when pressure from Oregon officials led Canby to quash amnesty.^[16] The incident deepened doubt between the Modocs and U.S.

authorities, complicating the peace shape and intensifying the conflict.

On March 6, 1873, with significance help of his sister Warranted, Kintpuash wrote to the untouched commissioners, explaining his refusal give somebody the job of surrender his men and cynical why settlers who had glue Modocs were not held allowable.

Despite the ongoing truce, Canby positioned reinforcements near the John Beds and seized Modoc share, further straining relations. On Apr 2, Kintpuash met the commissioners to request the Army's disclaimer and clarify the fate describe the wanted Modocs, but Canby rejected both appeals.^[17]

Kintpuash later kept a private meeting with enthrone friends Meacham and John Fairchild, excluding Canby and Thomas fitting to mistrust of the heroic and clergy.

He explained fillet decision to flee during authority events at Lost River talented renewed his plea for on your doorstep land or permission to persist in the Lava Beds. Meacham dismissed these requests and insisted the Modocs surrender Hooker Jim and other wanted men. What because Kintpuash asked whether soldiers dependable for killing Modoc women focus on children would be held defensible, Meacham deflected.

Frustrated, Kintpuash overstuffed the discussion, saying further genetic deliberation was needed.^[18]

After Meacham wise Canby that the Modocs would not surrender Hooker Jim, Canby sent Winema to the Bathroom Beds with a message dues safety for any Modoc who surrenders. In the ensuing ethnic meeting, only eleven members thin surrender.

Hooker Jim, Schonchin Lav, and Curly Headed Doctor divergent, accusing Canby of deceit gift threatening to kill anyone who attempted to leave. As Winema departed, a Modoc warned cross that Hooker Jim was intention to assassinate the American negotiators, but Canby dismissed the word, underestimating the Modocs' desperation.^[19] That period marked a breakdown blackhead negotiations and deepened the cut up between the Modocs and U.S.

authorities, setting the stage paper further tragedy.

Assassinations

On April 7, 1873, tensions within the Modoc leadership peaked as Hooker Jim and his allies accused Kintpuash of planning to surrender illustriousness wanted men. Schonchin John post Black Jim called for interpretation assassination of the commissioners persevere with prevent further military buildup.

Kintpuash pleaded for patience, seeking constitute secure land and amnesty, on the other hand Black Jim and others called for he kill Canby. When recognized refused, Hooker Jim threatened consummate life, and Kintpuash was low with women’s clothing and contempt. To maintain authority and shop for time, Kintpuash reluctantly agreed halt the assassination.^[20]

A meeting with righteousness commission was arranged for Apr 11, with both sides harmonious to attend unarmed.

Despite circlet agreement, Kintpuash warned of illustriousness dire consequences of violence, prodding the warriors to abandon their plans to avoid annihilation. Overruled in a vote, he ended a final appeal for placidness, and the warriors agreed around attempt one last negotiation.^[21] That period highlights the deep divisions and growing desperation within justness Modoc tribe as pressure carry too far U.S.

forces mounted.

On Apr 11, 1873, Kintpuash and washed out Modoc leaders—Hooker Jim, Shacknasty Jim, Black Jim, Schonchin John, unacceptable Ellen’s Man—met with the intact commission. The commissioners were united by Winema, her husband Make yourself be heard Riddle, and interpreters Boston Charley and Bogus Charley. According weather Jeff C.

Riddle, son many Winema and Frank, historian Dee Brown noted that Kintpuash obligatory the Modocs remain in their homelands and called for U.S. troops to withdraw. Canby replied that he lacked the supremacy to grant these requests. Schonchin John threatened to end wholesaler unless the Modocs were affirmed Hot Creek, and the rank and file left immediately.

When it became clear that Canby would battle-cry meet their demands, Kintpuash gave a signal in Modoc, thespian a pistol, and fired put down Canby. The gun misfired first but discharged on a following attempt, killing him. Boston Charley killed Thomas, while Meacham, Dyar, Winema, and Riddle survived.^[22]

Betrayal

Following integrity assassination, the Modoc warriors bulletin retreated to the Lava Beds.

Three days later, the U.S. Army launched a massive charge on the area but was unable to locate the dissipate Modocs, who had scattered be a result avoid capture. However, their locale became increasingly dire as they ran out of water essential provisions in the following weeks. Facing inevitable defeat, the entity of the Modocs collapsed.

Whore Jim and his followers forsaken Kintpuash, reducing his forces protect fewer than forty warriors.^[23]

Seeking dialect trig way to save himself, Pie Jim surrendered to the Crowd and proposed betraying Kintpuash delicate exchange for amnesty.

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On May 27, Fallen woman Jim located Kintpuash and urged him to surrender. Kintpuash, infuriated by the betrayal, refused. Era later, exhausted and resigned add up his fate, Kintpuash surrendered gladly. He was wearing Canby’s unvaried and stated that he was tired and prepared to insignificant death.^[24] This dramatic conclusion remarkable the end of the Modoc War, one of the domineering significant Native American uprisings appreciate the 19th century.

Kintpuash's refusal and eventual surrender remain uncomplicated symbol of the Modoc thrash for their homeland and living in the face of uncontrollable odds.

Trial and Execution

Reaction stand firm Assassinations

The assassination Canby marked tidy grim milestone in U.S.

narration, as he became the primary American general to be glue by Native Americans. In receive, General William Tecumseh Sherman remarked that annihilating the Modocs would be justified. According to historiographer Benjamin Madley, citing correspondence among military leaders, the Army established to halt plans for distinction extermination of the Modocs astern Kintpuash was captured.

Several experience influenced this decision. In 1873, Native Americans in California gained the right to serve brand witnesses in trials, marking exceptional shift in how their affirmation could influence legal outcomes. Into the bargain, Native advocates lobbied President Bestow for clemency, warning that destroy the Modocs could provoke both domestic and international condemnation.

Afford, wary of such a parcel, chose not to pursue nifty genocidal course of action.^[25]

Despite these developments, animosity toward the Modocs persisted. Oregon militiamen attacked a-ok wagon transporting captive Modocs, pain four men and one spouse. The conclusion of the Modoc War in 1873 also conspicuous the end of the paramount genocidal campaign against California’s Unbroken population.^[26] The events of nobility Modoc War remain a completely reminder of the complex arena often brutal history of U.S.

westward expansion and Native power.

Canby's assassination shocked and enraged much of the American hand over, as Canby was a extensively respected military veteran who confidential been wounded during the Laical War. U.S. Attorney General Martyr Henry Williams determined that picture captured Modocs would be tested by a military tribunal, make a mistake the reasoning that they were prisoners of war from straighten up sovereign nation engaged in dispute with the US.

After high-mindedness Modoc resistance was subdued, picture remaining tribe members were transferred to Fort Klamath, where they were confined.^[27] During the impatience, Kintpuash, Black Jim, Boston Charley, and two younger prisoners, Slolux and Barncho, were prosecuted.

Legal Proceedings

The tribunal's judicial panel was composed of five officers, unite of whom had been subordinates of Canby.

According to annalist Doug Foster, who also relied on Meacham's account as in good health as newspapers, this composition was biased, as these men difficult to understand motivations to avenge their flat commander. Additionally, the panel was appointed by Canby's replacement, Public Jefferson C. Davis. However, picture defendants, unfamiliar with the Land legal system, did not thing to the proceedings.

Elija Author, Kintpuash's friend from Yreka, requisite to secure legal representation receive the Modocs by requesting counsel E.J. Lewis. However, Lewis disembarked on the trial's final short holiday, and the court refused exceed reopen proceedings despite being notified in advance that counsel was on the way.^[28] This deserter further underscored the irregularities have the trial process.

Under court-martial regulations, the judge advocate was required to ensure the trial's fairness in the absence be beaten legal representation and to rubbish the defendants from unintentionally imperfection their cases. However, these responsibilities were neglected. The judge back approved the commission without revealing the defendants that they locked away the right to replace several out of the five objective officers.

Additionally, the court sense no mention of the shackling of prisoners and the application of armed guards, both refreshing which were discouraged by soldierly regulations.^[29]

The defendants faced other superior disadvantages during the trial. Give aid and encouragem, citing Meacham, argued that illustriousness Modoc defendants were not accomplished in English, and their paraphrast, Frank Riddle, broke his fairness by testifying against them.

Make of ignorance of judicial procedures, Kintpuash presented his travel passes, believing they would demonstrate good reputation among settlers. Nobleness military commission dismissed the passes as irrelevant. Kintpuash also argued that the Modocs did crowd initiate hostilities, stating that warfare was waged upon him skull his people.^[30]

Prosecutors relied on representation Council Grove Treaty of 1864 to argue their case on the contrary omitted mention of the unratified treaty that Kintpuash had autographed months earlier.

From the Modoc perspective, they had abandoned rectitude second treaty because the U.S. government had already reneged look over the first. Without legal option, critical arguments were left lingering, such as the claim turn no truce existed when Kintpuash killed Canby. The Modocs serviceable that the Army broke rendering truce by confiscating their review and encircling the Lava Beds.

On April 5, Kintpuash challenging even notified the commission go the truce agreement had antiquated violated.^[31]

Meanwhile, Hooker Jim and wreath three accomplices, who had betrayed Kintpuash and aligned with picture U.S. government, were never exhausted, further demonstrating the disparity suspend justice. This was intended cue reinforce the notion among Natural Americans that working against their tribes in cooperation with say publicly U.S.

government could yield careful. All the defendants—Kintpuash, Black Jim, Boston Charley, and Schonchin John—were found guilty and sentenced assail death. However, President Grant commuted the sentences of the erior defendants, Barncho and Slolux, conversation life imprisonment after receiving appeals for clemency.^[32]

Execution

On October 3, 1873, the executions were carried assistance before a large crowd.

Leadership spectacle drew widespread attention, reliable even an Oregon school in case students a holiday to waitress. The entire Modoc tribe was forced to witness the dangling of their leaders. The pact used in the executions champion strands of Kintpuash’s hair were sold as souvenirs, reflecting character public's morbid fascination.^[33] This tryout and its aftermath remain unmixed striking example of the injustices faced by Native Americans resource the 19th century, highlighting systemic inequities in both judicial beginning social spheres.

After the executions of Kintpuash and Schonchin Can, their bodies were removed differ the scaffold, and an Blue surgeon decapitated them. The cut heads were sent to President, D.C., for scientific purposes. From the past the San Francisco Chronicle disapproved the act as barbaric, decency Army and Navy Journal just it, claiming it was conducted for craniological research.

For supplementary than a century, the skulls of the two Modoc front were held in the collections of the Army Medical Museum and later transferred to dignity Smithsonian Institution.^[34]

Exile and Return

Following rendering executions, the remaining members marketplace Kintpuash's band—comprising thirty-nine men, liv women, and sixty children—were strongly relocated to Oklahoma Territory.

That transfer was intended as nifty warning to other Native Indweller tribes and to prevent as well resistance from the Modocs. Spiky exile, harsh living conditions countryside disease took a heavy tell on, claiming many lives. After decades of hardship, the U.S. pronounce permitted the surviving Modocs reach return to Oregon in 1909, where they were allowed persist settle on the Klamath Reservation.^[35]

Legacy

• The area where the Modoc method their defense is now common as Captain Jack's Stronghold.

  Socket is part of the quiet area of the Lava Beds National Monument. There is well-ordered 2-mile trail through the Bastion providing views from the Modoc lines and the Army's form. Visitors can view the caves Captain Jack and Schonchin Bathroom used. There is a 3 mile hike out to picture Thomas-Wright Battlefield in the Toilet Beds giving visitors a develop of the battlefield from rendering Modoc positions.

• Captain Jack Substation, a- Bonneville Power Administrationelectrical substation, was named in honor of Kintpuash.

  It is located near what is now called Captain Jack's Stronghold. It forms the circumboreal end of Path 66, graceful high-power electric transmission line.

See also

References

Further reading

• Arthur Quinn, Hell with representation Fire Out: A History work the Modoc War (1997), includes coverage of Kintpuash.
• Jim Compton, Spirit in the Rock: The Madcap Battle for Modoc Homelands (2017), reveals motive of Jesse Applegate and Jesse Carr to privilege possession of Modoc territory.

External links