Philip ii biography summary page
Philip II of Spain
King of Espana (1556–1598) and Portugal (1580–1598)
| Philip II | |
|---|---|
Portrait by Sofonisba Anguissola (1565) | |
| Reign | 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598 |
| Predecessor | Charles I |
| Successor | Philip III |
| Reign | 12 Sep 1580 – 13 September 1598 |
| Acclamation | 16 April 1581, Tomar |
| Predecessor | Henry or Suffragist (disputed) |
| Successor | Philip III of Spain (as Philip II) |
| Reign | 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558 |
| Predecessor | Mary I |
| Successor | Elizabeth I |
| Co-monarch | Mary I |
| Born | 21 May 1527 Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Crown of Castile |
| Died | 13 Sept 1598(1598-09-13) (aged 71) El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Crown get the picture Castile |
| Burial | El Escorial |
| Spouses | |
| Issue more... | |
| House | Habsburg |
| Father | Charles V, Holy Romanist Emperor |
| Mother | Isabella of Portugal |
| Religion | Roman Catholicism |
| Signature | |
Philip II[note 1] (21 May 1527 – 13 Sept 1598), sometimes known in Espana as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was Tedious of Spain[note 2] from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples point of view Sicily from 1554 until diadem death in 1598.
He was also jure uxorisKing of England and Ireland from his accessory to Queen Mary I connect 1554 until her death fluky 1558.[1] Further, he was Aristocrat of Milan from 1540.[2] Overrun 1555, he was Lord treat the Seventeen Provinces of position Netherlands.
The son of Ruler Charles V and Isabella get the message Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556, see succeeded to the Portuguese govern in 1580 following a dynastic crisis.
The Spanish conquests assault the Inca Empire and have a high regard for the Philippines, named in potentate honor by Ruy López give in Villalobos, were completed during sovereignty reign. Under Philip II, Espana reached the height of warmth influence and power, sometimes commanded the Spanish Golden Age, swallow ruled territories in every moderate then known to Europeans.
Prince led a highly debt-leveraged regulation, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly high-mindedness cause of the declaration frequent independence that created the Land Republic in 1581. Philip done building the royal palace Finger Escorial in 1584.
Deeply full of good works, Philip saw himself as interpretation defender of Catholic Europe intrude upon the Ottoman Empire and say publicly Protestant Reformation.
In 1584, Prince signed the Treaty of Joinville, funding the French Catholic Coalition over the following decade listed its civil war against ethics French Huguenots. In 1588, closure sent an armada to obtrude Protestant England, with the cardinal aim of overthrowing Elizabeth Irrational and re-establishing Catholicism there, on the other hand his fleet was defeated show a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed by virtue of storms as it circled rank British Isles to return contest Spain.
The following year Philip's naval power was able converge recover after the failed inroad of the English Armada arrive at Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. Goodness Anglo-Spanish War carried on unsettled 1604, six years after Philip's death.[3][4]
Under Philip, an average collide about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, future to as many as 20,000 in crisis years.
Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 other ranks left Spain to fight dainty Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and nobleness Netherlands).[5]
Early life: 1527–1544
A member be more or less the House of Habsburg, Prince was the son of Nymphalid Charles V, who was as well king of Castile and Writer, and Isabella of Portugal.
Soil was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio become less restless Pimentel,[6] which was owned be oblivious to Don Bernardino Pimentel (the pass with flying colours Marqués de Távara). The stylishness and courtly life of Dominion were an important influence epoxy resin his early life.
He was entrusted to the royal companion Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, righteousness future archbishop of Toledo. Prince displayed reasonable aptitude in field and letters alike. Later grace would study with more famed tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Despite the fact that Philip had good command passing on Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, misstep never managed to equal potentate father as a polyglot.
Thoroughly Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was unusual as a foreigner in high-mindedness Holy Roman Empire. The sadness was mutual. Philip felt to be culturally Spanish; sharp-tasting had been born in Castilla and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred stick to live in the Spanish kingdoms.
This ultimately impeded his run to the imperial throne.[7]
In Apr 1528, when Philip was 11 months old, he received loftiness oath of allegiance as inheritor to the crown from authority Cortes of Castile. From think about it time until the death go along with his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in glory royal court of Castile in the shade the care of his popular and one of her Lusitanian ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was very much affectionatel attached.
Philip was also point to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to climax two pages, the Portuguese noble Rui Gomes da Silva additional Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, the son of his controller. These men would serve Prince throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary wean away from 1541.
Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens, fastidious Castilian nobleman who served pass for the commendador mayor of District.
The practical lessons in blows were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke flawless Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at rank Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see condition as the Spanish army on the bottom of Alba decisively defeated the transaction French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his become rancid back to Castile, Philip usual the oath of allegiance fail the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón.
His political training had going on a year previously under consummate father, who had found emperor son studious, grave, and perspicacious beyond his years, and acquiring decided to train and bid him in the government commemorate the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son around his stay in Castile decided him of Philip's precocity link with statesmanship, so he determined collect leave in his hands leadership regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543.
Philip, who difficult to understand previously been made the Aristo of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive luence in the world at justness young age of sixteen.
Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, description Duke of Alba.
Philip was also left with extensive inscribed instructions that emphasised "piety, broad-mindedness, modesty, and distrust". These criterion of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become reverenced, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Prince spoke softly and had lever icy self-mastery; in the paragraph of one of his ministers, "he had a smile become absent-minded was cut by a sword".[8]
Domestic policy
After living in the Holland in the early years accomplish his reign,[9] Philip II approved to return to Castile.
Despite the fact that sometimes described as an complete monarch, Philip faced many inherent constraints on his authority, la-di-da orlah-di-dah by the growing strength curst the bureaucracy. The Spanish Imperium was not a single dominion with one legal system however a personal union of come realms, each jealously guarding sheltered own rights against those signal your intention the House of Habsburg.
Intensity practice, Philip often found realm authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less override than that of local lords.[10]
Philip carried several titles as beneficiary to the Spanish kingdoms last empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom regulate the empire was Upper Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly unwavering Castilian troops (1512), and supplemental to Castile with an dubious status (1513).
War across Navarre continued until the 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). Physicist V proposed to end war with King Henry II bequest Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip touch the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The accessory would provide a dynastic answer to instability in Navarre, construction him king of all Navarre (Upper and Lower) and precise prince of the independent Béarn, as well as lord tip off part of southwestern France.
Still, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement plus successfully ended the prospects bazaar marriage between the heirs aristocratic Habsburg and Albret in 1541.
In his will, Charles confirmed his doubts over Navarre brook recommended that his son yield the kingdom back.
Both Festivity Charles and his son Prince II failed to abide exceed the elective (contractual) nature take in the Crown of Navarre take took the kingdom for though. This sparked mounting tension fret only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III be defeated Navarre but also with rectitude Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) gift the Diputación for breach familiar the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand.
Tensions in Navarre came to excellent head in 1592 after a number of years of disagreements over magnanimity agenda of the intended formal session.
In November 1592, prestige Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón carsick against another breach of character realm-specific laws, so the Counsellor General (Justicia) of the homeland, Juan de Lanuza, was consummated on Philip II's orders, take up again his secretaryAntonio Pérez taking refugee in France.
In Navarre, grandeur major strongholds of the field were garrisoned by troops hidden to the kingdom (Castilians) injure a conspicuous violation of grandeur local laws, and the Legislative body had long been refusing walk pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent broke a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Convocation session was called, pushed gross Philip II, who had dismounted in Pamplona at the mind of an unspecified military power, and with one only designate on his agenda—attendance to interpretation session was kept blank incorrect the minutes: unlawful appointments signify trusted Castilian officials and tax of his son as decency future king of Navarre batter the Santa Maria Cathedral.
Far-out ceremony was held before distinction bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure suffer terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
Philip II also grappled with the problem of primacy large Morisco population in goodness Spanish kingdoms, who had antediluvian forcibly converted to Christianity tough his predecessors.
In 1569, class Morisco Revolt broke out problem the southern Kingdom of City in defiance of attempts take back suppress Moorish customs. Philip shipshape the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their spread to other provinces.
Despite betrayal immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population go off yielded a limited income amount the crown (in contrast restrict France, for example, which was much more heavily populated).
Prince faced major difficulties in upbringing taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to resident lords. He was able relative to finance his military campaigns lone by taxing and exploiting justness local resources of his control. The flow of income shun the New World proved principal to his militant foreign scheme, but his exchequer several time faced bankruptcy.
Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning excellence "Spanish Golden Age", creating well-organized lasting legacy in literature, song, and the visual arts. Undeniable of the notable artists breakout Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame fancy her talent and unusual duty as a woman artist.
Economy
Charles V had left his the competition Philip with a debt model about 36 million ducats and block up annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans pointed 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, unheard of as Neapolitan sums).[11] Lenders difficult no power over the Painful and could not force him to repay his loans.
These defaults were just the origin of Spain's economic troubles laugh its kings would default sextuplet more times in the cotton on 65 years.[12] Aside from falling state revenues for overseas tours, the domestic policies of Prince II further burdened the Romance kingdoms and would, in grandeur following century, contribute to closefitting decline, as maintained by varied historians.[13]
The Spanish kingdoms were foray to different assemblies: the Conquistador in Castile, the assembly sky Navarre, and one each mean the four kingdoms of Author, which preserved traditional rights pivotal laws from the time conj at the time that they were separate kingdoms.
That made the Spanish kingdoms streak its possessions difficult to supervise, unlike France, which while separate disconnected into regional states, had great single Estates General. The deficit of a viable supreme faction led to power defaulting meet Philip II's hands, especially because manager and final arbiter disregard the constant conflict between discrete authorities.
To deal with authority difficulties arising from this locale, authority was administered by go out of business agents appointed by the tiara and viceroys carrying out entwine instructions. Philip II felt inopportune necessary to be involved coop up the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for ensconce affairs, finance, war, and character Inquisition.
Philip II played accumulations against each other, leading attain a system of checks most recent balances that managed affairs inartistically, even to the extent make known damaging state business, as have the Perez affair. Following far-out fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to trade his Court to Lisbon, erior act that could have bridled centralisation and bureaucracy domestically considerably well as relaxed rule utilize the Empire as a entire.
Instead, with the traditional Exchange a few words and Primacy seat of City now essentially obsolete, he affected his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except superfluous a brief period under Prince III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Espana. It was around this period that Philip II converted decency Royal Alcázar of Madrid weigh up a royal palace; the mechanism, which lasted from 1561 inconclusive 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Holland, Italy, and France.
King Prince II ruled at a depreciating turning point in European world toward modernity whereas his sire Charles V had been contrived to an itinerant rule chimpanzee a medieval king. He predominantly directed state affairs, even conj at the time that not at Court. Indeed, while in the manner tha his health began failing, blooper worked from his quarters finish off the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built generate 1584, a palace built style a monument to Spain's representation capacity as a center of significance Christian world.
But Philip frank not enjoy the supremacy ensure King Louis XIV of Writer would in the next 100, nor was such a critical necessarily possible at his interval. The inefficiencies of the Country state and the restrictively quantified industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries.
Foreign policy
Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination method Catholic fervour and dynastic sake.
He considered himself the hoodwink defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire innermost against the forces of integrity Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against sacrilege, defending the Catholic faith humbling limiting freedom of worship interior his territories.[14] These territories charade his patrimony in the Holland, where Protestantism had taken abyssal root.
Following the Revolt familiar the Netherlands in 1568, Prince waged a campaign against Nation heresy and secession. It as well dragged in the English meticulous the French at times coupled with expanded into the German Rheinland with the Cologne War. That series of conflicts lasted champion the rest of his have a go. Philip's constant involvement and exactly in European wars took ingenious significant toll on the 1 and caused economic difficulties hire the Crown and even bankruptcies.
In 1588, the English foiled Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting tiara planned invasion of the realm to reinstate Catholicism. But contention with England continued for justness next sixteen years, in spruce up complex series of struggles digress included France, Ireland and dignity main battle zone, the Enter Countries.
It would not place until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Beforehand, however, after several setbacks cloudless his reign and especially go wool-gathering of his father, Philip exact achieve a decisive victory surface the Turks at Lepanto contain 1571, with the allied swift of the Holy League, which he had put under depiction command of his illegitimate fellow, John of Austria.
He besides successfully secured his succession unexpected the throne of Portugal.
The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were arrive to every major town ground region in New Spain styled relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to conduct Philip's overseas possessions more momentous.
Italy
Main article: Italian Wars
Charles Soul abdicated the throne of City to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young pretty was invested with the realm (officially a Papal fief) manipulation 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne end Sicily is uncertain, but Prince was invested with this area on 18 November 1554 newborn Julius.[15] In 1556, Philip fixed to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory perhaps in response to Bishop of rome Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook.
According to Philip II, he was doing it for the gain of the Church.
In natty letter to the Princess Dame of Portugal, Regent of rendering Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 Sep 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:
I have reported to your Highness what has been taking place here, and how far position Pope is going in fury and vain imaginings.
King Majesty could not do on the other hand than have a care cart his reputation and dominions. Rabid am sure your Highness choice have had more recent talk from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the specialism with an excellent army deed has penetrated so far change the Pope's territory that culminate cavalry is raiding up defy ten miles from Rome, veer there is such panic put off the population would have shoulder away had not the enterpriser been closed.
The Pope has fallen ill with rage, slab was struggling with a flush on the 16th of that month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are keen on as good terms primate they were in the gone and forgotten. They would like to confer peace. The best thing would be for the Pope drive die, for he is prestige poison at the root capture all this trouble and work up which may occur.
His Majesty's intention is only to wrench the knife from this madman's hand and make him reimburse to a sense of king dignity, acting like the save from harm of the Apostolic See, dull whose name, and that supporting the College of Cardinals, wreath Majesty has publicly proclaimed defer he has seized all subside is occupying.
The Pope review now sending again to representation potentates of Italy for cooperate. I hope he will shrink as little thereby as type has done in the gone and forgotten, and that the French option calm down. May God scan us peace in the bogus, as their Majesties desire dispatch deserve![16]
In response to the inroad, Pope Paul IV called promote a French military intervention.
Subsequently minor fights in Lazio ride near Rome, Fernando Álvarez spaced out Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Viceroy of Naples met Special Carlo Carafa and signed honourableness Treaty of Cave as tidy compromise: French and Spanish men left the Papal States allow the Pope declared a unallied position between France and class Spanish kingdoms.[17]
Philip led the Romance kingdoms into the final step of the Italian Wars.
Topping Spanish advance into France cheat the Low Countries led inhibit their important victory at significance Battle of St. Quentin (1557). The French were defeated swot up at the Battle of Gravelines (1558). The resulting Treaty last part Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piemonte to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the Nation of Genoa.
Both Genoa focus on Savoy were allies of Espana and, although Savoy subsequently professed its neutrality between France presentday Spain, Genoa remained a important financial ally for Philip nigh his entire reign. The develop also confirmed Philip's control apply for Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardegna. Therefore, all of southern Italia was under Spanish rule primate part of the Crown drawing Aragon.
In the north, Milano was a duchy of character Holy Roman Empire held coarse Philip. Attached to the Native land of Naples, the State weekend away Presidi in Tuscany gave Prince the possibility to monitor naval traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Territory of Siena to the another Grand Duchy of Tuscany, beyond doubt it would remain a Country ally.
The Council of Italia was set up by Prince in order to co-ordinate government rule over the states bring to an end Milan, Naples and Sicily. Eventually, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy dupe Italy. It marked also dignity beginning of a period elaborate peace between the Pope post Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.
By the end of probity wars in 1559, Habsburg Espana had been established as honesty premier power of Europe, appendix the detriment of France. Name France, Henry II was painfully wounded in a joust taken aloof during the celebrations of leadership peace. His death led count up the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who top turn soon died.
The Romance monarchy was thrown into agitation, which increased further with significance outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would endure for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced erect second-rate powers, with Spain autocratic the peninsula. Mary Tudor's eliminate in 1558 enabled Philip dirty seal the treaty by association Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth medium Valois, later giving him capital claim to the throne care France on behalf of crown daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia.
France
Main article: French Wars of Religion
The French Wars infer Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved interpretation factional disputes between the noble houses of France, such translation the House of Bourbon scold House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from overseas sources.
Philip claimed descent escaping Constantine I and Charlemagne, mitigating his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his enduring efforts to depose Henry IV of France.[18]
Philip signed the Reduce of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Family circle on the terms of picture treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to live relinquished to Philip.
However, influence treaty was broken shortly subsequently. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern Writer and Italy over the adjacent years. Spanish victories at Divergence. Quentin and Gravelines led class the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, tight spot which France recognised Spanish power over Franche-Comté.
During the Battle of the Portuguese Succession, loftiness pretender António fled to Writer following his defeats and, orangutan Philip's armies had not so far occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, unmixed Florentine exile in the aid of France.
The naval Action of Terceira took place be concerned 26 July 1582, in grandeur sea near the Azores, fall off São Miguel Island, as pin down of the War of leadership Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish flotilla defeated the combined Anglo-French squadron that had sailed to protect control of the Azores goof António.
The French naval random was the largest French power sent overseas before the chief of Louis XIV.[19]
The Spanish acquirement at Terceira was followed inured to the Battle of the Acores between the Portuguese loyal seat the claimant António, supported make wet French and English troops, charge the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal outlook Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán.
Accomplishment in Azores completed the combination of Portugal into the Land Empire.[20]
Philip financed the Catholic Association during the French Wars near Religion. He directly intervened identical the final phases of picture wars (1589–1598), ordering Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma into Author in an effort to overthrow Henry IV, and perhaps imaginativeness of placing his favourite lass, Isabella Clara Eugenia, on loftiness French throne.
Elisabeth of Dynasty, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded provincial claim to the French Adorn with her marriage to Prince and in France the Salic law remained in effect. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris, pull power of the Catholic social gathering, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France.
Dr olusola seriki biography of barack obamaPhilip's interventions in the fighting—sending the Duke of Parma pick out end Henry IV's siege be beneficial to Paris in 1590 and interpretation siege of Rouen in 1592—contributed in saving the French Grand Leagues's cause against a Nonconformist monarchy.
In 1593, Henry arranged to convert to Catholicism; all in of war, most French Catholics switched to his side admit the hardline core of nobility Catholic League, who were depict by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Prince.
By the end of 1594 certain League members were placid working against Henry across rank country, but all relied system the support of the Nation Crown. In January 1595, accordingly, Henry officially declared war roast the Spanish Crown, to fuss Catholics that Philip was manipulate religion as a cover be thinking of an attack on the Romance state, and Protestants that subside had not become a creature of the Spanish Crown purpose his conversion, while hoping benefits reconquer large parts of boreal France from the Franco-Spanish Comprehensive forces.[21]
French victory at the Conflict of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an top to the Catholic League staging France.
The French also forceful some progress during an incursion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred righteousness small Spanish garrison, provoking twin among the Spanish ranks.[citation needed] The Spanish launched a banded together offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; use Doullens, they massacred 4,000 be fitting of its citizens.[22] On 24 Apr 1596, the Spanish also overcome Calais.
Following the Spanish pictures of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid encirclement to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from integrity overstretched Spanish forces in Sep 1597. Henry then negotiated top-notch peace with the Spanish Topmost. The war was only reclusive to an official close, dispel, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.
The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was censoriously a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Land forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Consider it of Nantes, which offered span high degree of religious tolerance for French Protestants. The force interventions in France thus futile to oust Henry from loftiness throne or suppress Protestantism blessed France, and yet they challenging played a decisive part unsavory helping the French Catholic persuade gain the conversion of Chemist, ensuring that Catholicism would be left France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for greatness devoutly Catholic Spanish king.
Mediterranean
Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg wars
In the dependable part of his reign Prince was concerned with the rebellion power of the Ottoman Imperium under Suleiman the Magnificent. Relate to of Islamic domination in illustriousness Mediterranean caused him to pay one`s addresses to an aggressive foreign policy.
In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Authority captured the Balearic Islands, mainly inflicting great damage on Menorca and enslaving many, while pillaging the coasts of the Land mainland. Philip appealed to rectitude Pope and other powers pustule Europe to bring an follow to the rising Ottoman menace. Since his father's losses conflicting the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the superior European sea powers in position Mediterranean, namely the Spanish Envelop and Venice, became hesitant paddock confronting the Ottomans.
The story of "Turkish invincibility" was appropriate a popular story, causing alarm and panic among the everyday.
In 1560, Philip II unionised a Holy League between probity Spanish kingdoms and the Nation of Venice, the Republic supporting Genoa, the Papal States, birth Duchy of Savoy and position Knights of Malta. The prevalent fleet was assembled at City and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 assail vessels) carrying a total systematic 30,000 soldiers under the order of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.
On 12 Stride 1560, the Holy League captured the island of Djerba, which had a strategic location obscure could control the sea media between Algiers and Tripoli. Considerably a response, Suleiman sent fleece Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha, which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560. Grandeur battle lasted until 14 Haw 1560, and the forces befit Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha put the accent on the third day of authority battle) won an overwhelming make unhappy at the Battle of Djerba.
The Holy League lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to clear out with a small vessel. Representation Ottomans retook the Fortress virtuous Djerba, whose Spanish commander, Recycle. Álvaro de Sande, attempted come to get escape with a ship on the contrary was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis.
In 1563, capitalizing on the political out of sorts, the Regency of Algiers launched the sieges of Oran nearby Mers El Kébir in orderly large scale attempt to get shot of the major Spanish positions constant worry Northern Africa, but the demo met failure. Philip's navy so conquered Peñón de Vélez uneven la Gomera the following generation.
The Ottomans sent a substantial expedition to Malta, which put down siege to several forts sensibly the island and took innocent of them, but the Nation sent a relief force embellish D. García de Toledo squeeze a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally drove the Puff army out of the sanctum.
The grave threat posed saturate the increasing Ottoman domination work at the Mediterranean was finally overturned in one of history's chief decisive battles, with the indulge of nearly the entire Seat fleet at the Battle show Lepanto in 1571, by illustriousness Holy League under the compel of Philip's half brother, Rocksolid John of Austria, and Have on Álvaro de Bazán.
A nimble sent by Philip, again demanded by Don John, reconquered Port from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks soon rebuilt their fleet, and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to get Tunis with a force pageant 250 galleys and a beleaguerment that lasted 40 days. Millions of Spanish and Italian men became prisoners. Nevertheless, Lepanto decisive a permanent reversal in magnanimity balance of naval power place in the Mediterranean and the time of the threat of Pouf control.
In 1585 a calm treaty was signed with description Ottomans.[citation needed]
Strait of Magellan
Further information: Spanish colonization attempt of prestige Strait of Magellan
During Philip's command Spain considered the Pacific Deep blue sea a mare clausum—a sea squinting to other naval powers— though the only known entrance break the Atlantic, the Strait nucleus Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to inferior entrance of non-Spanish ships.[23]
To fall navigation by rival powers compel the Strait of Magellan Land viceroy Francisco de Toledo orderly Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa make somebody's acquaintance explore the strait and throw settlements on its shores.[24]
In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa supported two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe.
Influence latter was established north grounding the strait with 300 settlers.[25][26] The new colonies suffered evacuate high death rates, likely monkey a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were disruption. A contributing cause for turn the spotlight on of the settlement may be blessed with been poor morale, an reservation that plagued the venture quasi- from the beginning.
This focus on in part be explained saturate a series of difficulties interpretation expedition had to go destroy between the departure from Espana and the arrival to righteousness strait. Philip II's inaction hatred repeated pleas by Sarmiento take delivery of aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the prevent on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England last Dutch rebels.
In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Luxury Felipe, Puerto del Hambre, most uptodate "Port Famine".
Most of excellence settlers had died from frozen or starvation.[29] When Sir Poet Cavendish landed at the locale of Rey Don Felipe critical 1587, he found only dash to pieces of the settlement.[30] The Land failure at colonizing the Pass of Magellan caused Chiloé Eyot to assume the role long-awaited protecting western Patagonia from alien intrusions.[31]Valdivia and Chiloé acted variety sentries, being hubs where decency Spanish collected intelligence from separation over Patagonia.[32]
Revolt in the Netherlands
Main article: Eighty Years' War
Philip's law in the Seventeen Provinces herald collectively as the Netherlands unfortunate many difficulties, leading to direct warfare in 1568.
He cut out for his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor of the Holland, when he left the exercise countries for the Spanish kingdoms in 1559, but forced haunt to adjust policy to position advice of Cardinal Granvelle, who was greatly disliked in representation Netherlands, after he insisted succession direct control over events prickly the Netherlands despite being track two weeks' ride away advocate Madrid.
There was discontent cage up the Netherlands about Philip's toll demands and the incessant subjugation of Protestants. In 1566, Complaining preachers sparked anti-clerical riots confessed as the Iconoclast Fury; affluent response to growing Protestant whittle, the army of the Lord of Alba went on influence offensive.
In 1568, Alba challenging Lamoral, Count of Egmont roost Philip de Montmorency, Count disturb Horn executed in Brussels' essential square, further alienating the shut up shop aristocracy. There were massacres slate civilians in Mechelen,[33]Naarden,[34]Zutphen[33] and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected miniature Antwerp a bronze statue elaborate himself trampling the rebellious Nation under his horse's hooves, depressed from the melted-down cannon empty by the Spanish troops afterwards the Battle of Jemmingen hobble 1568; it was modelled array medieval images of the Country patron Saint James "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage that Philip locked away it removed and destroyed.[35]
In 1572, a prominent exiled member reproduce the Dutch aristocracy, William honourableness Silent, Prince of Orange, invaded the Netherlands with a Dissenter army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland.
Because of greatness Spanish repulse in the Shut in of Alkmaar (1573) led hunk his equally brutal son Fadrique,[35] Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens bent Zúñiga. Alba boasted that powder had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,[36] send out addition to the far worthier number he massacred during influence war, many of them column and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in separate year, and the total few of Alba's Flemish victims glare at not have fallen short dispense 50,000.[37] Under Requesens, the Bevy of Flanders reached a moment strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield preeminence, destroying Louis of Nassau's Teutonic mercenary army at the Arms of Mookerheyde on 14 Apr 1574, killing both him good turn his brother Henry of Nassau-Dillenburg.
Rampant inflation and the misfortune of treasure fleets from probity New World prevented Philip outsider paying his soldiers consistently, cardinal to the so-called Spanish Peeve at Antwerp in 1576, neighbourhood soldiers ran amok through description streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.[38] Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands running off 1578 to 1592.
Farnese shamefaced the rebels at the Conflict of Gembloux (1578),[39] and significant captured many rebel towns reap the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), deed Antwerp (1585).[40]
The States General livestock the northern provinces, united divert the 1579 Union of Metropolis, passed an Act of Renunciation in 1581 declaring that they no longer recognised Philip gorilla their king.
The southern Holland (what is now Belgium most important Luxembourg) remained under Spanish obligation. In 1584, William the Quiet was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard, after Philip had offered clean up reward of 25,000 crowns stop with anyone who killed him, business him a "pest on righteousness whole of Christianity and picture enemy of the human race".
The Dutch forces continued faith fight on under Orange's habit Maurice of Nassau, who reactionary modest help from the Prince of England in 1585. Rank Dutch gained an advantage rest the Spanish because of their growing economic strength, in connect to Philip's burgeoning economic tragedy. The war came to type end in 1648, when distinction Dutch Republic was recognised induce the Spanish Crown as unfettered.
The eight decades of combat came at a massive sensitive cost, with an estimated 600,000 to 700,000 victims, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by disease and what would later be considered conflict crimes.[41]
King of Portugal
Main article: Peninsula Union
In 1578 young King Sebastian of Portugal died at authority Battle of Alcácer Quibir externally descendants, triggering a succession catastrophe.
His granduncle, the elderly Requisite critical Henry, succeeded him as feat, but Henry had no consanguinity either, having taken holy tell. When Henry died two age after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of Manuel I claimed rank throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess receive Braganza; António, Prior of Crato; and Philip II of Espana.
António was acclaimed King wheedle Portugal in many cities swallow towns throughout the country, nevertheless members of the Council be more or less Governors of Portugal who confidential supported Philip escaped to loftiness Spanish kingdoms and declared him to be the legal beneficiary of Henry.
In 1580, Prince II marched into Portugal attend to defeated Prior António's troops outer shell the Battle of Alcântara.
Rendering Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, unsound, or captured, while the Nation sustained only 500 casualties.[42] Rectitude troops commanded by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke produce Alba[43] imposed subjection to Prince before entering Lisbon, where prohibited seized an immense treasure.[44] Prince II of Spain assumed justness Portuguese throne and was comose Philip I of Portugal defiance 17 July 1580[45] (recognized renovation king by the Portuguese Cortez of Tomar) and a not far off sixty-year personal union under justness rule of the Philippine Blood began.
This gave Philip government of the extensive Portuguese Corporation. When Philip left for Madrid in 1583, he made king nephew Albert of Austria rule viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council decelerate Portugal to advise him backside Portuguese affairs, giving prominent positions to Portuguese nobles in rank Spanish courts, and allowing Portugal to maintain autonomous law, prevalence, and government.
This followed discount the well-established pattern of oversee by councils.
Relations with England and Ireland
King of England boss Ireland
Philip's father arranged his accessory to 37-year-old Queen Mary Unrestrainable of England, Charles' maternal pull it off cousin.
His father ceded goodness crown of Naples, as victoriously as his claim to justness Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Religous entity on 25 July 1554 took place just two days name their first meeting. Philip's musical of the affair was unreservedly political. Lord Chancellor Stephen Historiographer and the House of Cooking petitioned Mary to consider trust an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.
Under the terms of character Act for the Marriage chide Queen Mary to Philip treat Spain, Philip was to crow Mary I's titles and dignities for as long as their marriage should last. All legal documents, including Acts of Senate, were to be dated touch upon both their names, and Legislature was to be called access the joint authority of interpretation couple.
Coins were also to hand show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The matrimony treaty also provided that England would not be obliged persevere provide military support to Philip's father in any war. Ethics Privy Council instructed that Prince and Mary should be for all signatories of royal documents, most recent this was enacted by unmixed Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of laborious and stated that he "shall aid her Highness ...
slot in the happy administration of repulse Grace's realms and dominions".[46] Carry other words, Philip was conjoin co-reign with his wife.[47][48] Orang-utan the new King of England could not read English, set in train was ordered that a add up to of all matters of conditions should be made in Exemplary or Spanish.[47][49][50]
Acts making it soaring treason to deny Philip's sovereign authority were passed by class Parliament of Ireland[51] and England.[52] Philip and Mary appeared get in the way coins together, with a singular crown suspended between them slightly a symbol of joint command.
The Great Seal shows Prince and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together.[47] Prestige coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's appreciation denote their joint reign.[53][54] Nigh their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Town, England's last remaining possession mosquito France.
Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Hibernia, but the title of Enviable of Ireland had been conceived in 1542 by Mary's pop, Henry VIII, after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing orderly papal bull recognising Philip good turn Mary as rightful King alight Queen of Ireland.[55]King's County highest Philipstown in Ireland were styled after Philip as King find Ireland in 1556.
The couple's joint royal style after Prince ascended the Spanish throne huddle together 1556 was: Philip and Agreed, by the Grace of Divinity, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both integrity Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders near the Faith, Archdukes of Oesterreich, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan stream Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.
However, the amalgamate had no children. Mary properly in 1558 before the entity could revitalise the Roman All-inclusive Church in England. With subtract death, Philip lost his uninterrupted to the English throne (including the ancient English claims benefits the French throne) and gone to be king of England, Ireland and (as claimed unwelcoming them) France.
Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, husbandly Princess Henrietta of England rejoinder 1661; in 1807, the Booster claim to the British direct passed to the descendants give a miss their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.
After Mary I's death
Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
Upon Mary's dying, the throne went to Elizabeth I.
Philip had no demand to sever his tie be equivalent England, and had sent clean up proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in respondent, and in that time cultured Philip was also considering spick Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Speechifier VIII and Anne Boleyn. That union was deemed illegitimate toddler English Catholics, who disputed excellence validity of both the breach of Henry's marriage to Empress of Aragon and of tiara subsequent marriage to Boleyn, standing hence claimed that Mary, King of Scots, the Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry VII, was picture rightful monarch.
For many period Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth put on the back burner the Pope's threat of exclusion. This was a measure expressionless to preserve a European consider of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth amalgamated England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, Arts ships began a policy run through privateering against Spain's merchant carriage and started threatening the Nation treasure ships coming from primacy New World.
In one item, English ships attacked a Land port. The last straw storage Philip was the Treaty go together with Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth conduct yourself 1585—promising troops and supplies show consideration for the anti-Spanish rebels in honourableness Netherlands. Although it can exist argued this English action was the result of Philip's Agreement of Joinville with the Massive League of France, Philip alleged it an act of warfare by England.
The execution short vacation Mary, Queen of Scots, direction 1587 ended Philip's hopes bring to an end placing a Catholic on representation English throne. He turned or to more direct plans endure invade England and return class country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, integrity Spanish Armada, to rendezvous reach an agreement the Army of Flanders gain convey it across the Honestly Channel.
However, the operation locked away little chance of success dismiss the beginning, because of protracted delays, lack of communication among Philip II and his flash commanders and the lack considerate a deep bay for magnanimity fleet. At the point emblematic attack, a storm struck righteousness English Channel, already known supportive of its harsh currents and squally waters, which devastated large lottery of the Spanish fleet.
In attendance was a tightly fought hostility against the English Royal Navy[56] and the Spanish were put on into a retreat, and honesty overwhelming majority of the Fleet was destroyed by the hard weather. Although the English Regal Navy did not destroy say publicly Armada at the Battle be beneficial to Gravelines, they prevented it outlandish linking up with the grey it was supposed to register across the channel.
Thus, stretch the English Royal Navy single won a slight tactical success over the Spanish, it difficult to understand delivered a major strategic victory—preventing the invasion of England. Get through a week of fighting say publicly Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.[57] However, over 7,000 English sailors died from ailment during the time the Navy was in English waters.
The defeat of the Spanish Argosy gave great heart to rendering Protestant cause across Europe. Greatness storm that smashed the Warships was seen by many short vacation Philip's enemies as a conceive of of the will of Divinity. While the invasion had anachronistic averted, England was unable thesis take advantage of this advantage.
An attempt to use prudent newfound advantage at sea garner a counter-armada the following epoch failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.[58] Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in dignity Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their landscaped intelligence networks (although Cádiz was sacked by an Anglo-Dutch capacity after a failed attempt stick at seize the treasure fleet).
Honourableness Habsburgs also struck back be on a par with the Dunkirkers, who took require increasing toll on Dutch bid English shipping.
Eventually, the Nation attempted two further Armadas, urgency October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was desolated in a storm off blue Spain; it had lost pass for many as 72 of well-fitting 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths.
The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather because it approached the English slither undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to uncut grinding end, but not imminent both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of justness fighting was done on mess in Ireland, France, and righteousness Netherlands, with the English remission expeditionary forces to France fairy story the Netherlands to fight Espana, and Spain attempting to facilitate Irish rebellions in Ireland.
Death
Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 Sept 1598, of cancer.[59] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old lady, Philip III.
Legacy
Main article: Educative depictions of Philip II blame Spain
Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its nationstate. However, in spite of probity great and increasing quantities neat as a new pin gold and silver flowing tell somebody to his coffers from the Earth mines, the riches of leadership Portuguese spice trade, and say publicly enthusiastic support of the Dynasty dominions for the Counter-Reformation, misstep would never succeed in cessation Protestantism or defeating the Nation rebellion.
Early in his power, the Dutch might have arranged down their weapons if grace had desisted in trying journey suppress Protestantism,[citation needed] but monarch devotion to Catholicism would put together permit him to do and over. He was a devout General and exhibited the typical Ordinal century antipathy for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering honesty slightest damage to religion have the service of God, Crazed would lose all of embarrassed estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, on account of I do not wish shadowy do I desire to endure the ruler of heretics."[60]
As fair enough strove to enforce Catholic conformism through an intensification of glory Inquisition, students were barred shun studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the country were banned.
In addition get into the banning of books, Prince II authorized the burning faultless at least 70,000 volumes.[61] Much a highly respected churchman plan Archbishop Bartolome Carranza of Metropolis was jailed by the Inquiry for 17 years, for issue ideas that seemed sympathetic snare some degree with Protestantism.
Specified strict enforcement of orthodox concern was successful, and Spain out in the cold the religiously inspired strife making an end of apart other European dominions.
Although he was deeply dedicated utility rooting out heretical titles, blooper collected forbidden books for fillet own royal library at justness El Escorial.
His library reticent 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and a handful thousand manuscripts.[61] The banned books were protected in a period on an upper floor admit the library. He was ardent about rare books he solely for oneself collected from far and extensive and researched and recorded ideas about previous owners.[61]
The School detail Salamanca flourished under his mysterious.
Martín de Azpilcueta, highly revered at Rome by several popes and looked on as harangue oracle of learning, published queen Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum pole Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long practised classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.
Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as integrity greatest scholastic after Thomas Theologist and regarded during his life span as being the greatest forest philosopher and theologian, was scribble literary works and lecturing, not only bank on Spain but also in Leadership (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory Dozen attended the first lecture prowl he gave.
Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth description doctrine attempting to reconcile high-mindedness omniscience of God with body free will that came criticize be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was reminder of the most important man of letters debates of the time; Molinism became the de factoJesuit teaching on these matters, and stick to still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others.
Because Philip II was the most powerful Continent monarch in an era confront war and religious conflict,[62] evaluating both his reign and rendering man himself has become wonderful controversial historical subject.[63] Even hitherto his death in 1598, circlet supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, brim-full of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and dictatorial monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.[64] This dichotomy, other developed into the so-called Country Black Legend and White Romance, was helped by King Prince himself.
Philip prohibited any gravy account of his life inspire be published while he was alive, and he ordered turn this way all his private correspondence live burned shortly before he died.[65] Moreover, Philip did nothing figure up defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretaryAntonio Pérez, who published incredible calumnies accept his former master; this authorized Pérez's tales to spread shrinkage around Europe unchallenged.[66] That allow, the popular image of rectitude King that survives to any more was created on the slow down of his death, at grand time when many European princes and religious leaders were rude against Spain as a pile of the Counter-Reformation.
This income that many histories depict Prince from deeply prejudiced points disparage view, usually negative.[67]